Vitamins
Vitamins are vital organic nutrients required in tiny amounts in the diet because they cannot be synthesized in sufficient quantities by the body.
The vitamins for humans include A – retinol, Bp – choline, B1 – thiamin, B2 – riboflavin, B3 – niacin, B5 – pantothenic acid, B6 – pyridoxine, B7 – biotin, B9 – folic acid, B12 – cobalamin, C – ascorbic acid, D – calciferol, E – tocopherol and K – naphthoquinones.
Vitamins have diverse biochemical functions.
Some have hormone-like functions as regulators of calcium metabolism (vitamin D), others support cell and tissue growth and differentiation (vitamin A) or work as antioxidants (vitamin E and vitamin C).
The largest group of vitamins (the B vitamins) are precursors of cofactors, that assist enzyme functions in the metabolism.
You can find more about all the vitamins below.
Vitamin A – retinol
Vitamin A is an important fat-soluble vitamin. Carotenoids such as beta-carotene can be converted to vitamin A in the body. Beta-carotene is an antioxidant. Antioxidants can protect cells from damage caused by substances called free radicals.
Vitamin A is important for rhodopsin or visual purple in the retina of the eye, immune response to combat infections and reduce inflammation, the integrity of the skin and mucous membranes, key processes in the bones, cell growth and development (pregnancy and childhood), sperm production and quality, and the reproductive cycle in females. Vitamin A is stored in the liver.
Sources
The richest source of vitamin A is liver including cod liver oil. Other good sources of vitamin A are meat, eggs, milk products, and fish oil.
Many dark-green or dark-yellow plants (including sweet potatoes, carrots, spinach, and kale) contain carotenoids, which can be converted to vitamin A in the body.
The more intense the color of the vegetable or fruit, the higher the beta-carotene content.
Below is a list of foods having the highest content of vitamin A in g per 100 grams of the food.
Since you may also be interested in foods with a high vitamin content AND few calories, the list also includes the number of calories.
The list is made using ECstep’s Personal Nutrition Data Program. Commercial brand products are not included in this list.
Daily intake
The recommended daily intake for adult males is 900 micrograms (~3000 IU) and for adult females 700 micrograms (~2333 IU). During pregnancy, 70 micrograms (~233 IU) should be added and during lactation, 500 micrograms (~1666 IU) should be added. (One microgram of Vitamin A is equal to 1/0.3 IU.)
Deficiency
Too little vitamin A can lead to “night blindness” and even dryness and opacity of the cornea (xeropthalmia) leading to blindness, increased vulnerability to infections, goose bump-like appearance of the skin, weakening of mucous membranes, infertility, and abnormal bone growth leading to malformation of bones.
Excess
Toxicity can occur at levels as low as 15,000 IU per day. (One IU is equal to 0.3 micrograms of Vitamin A.) However, the average daily toxic dose is 120,000 IU. In people with renal failure, 4000 IU can cause damage. Also, excessive alcohol intake can increase toxicity. Children can reach toxic levels at 1,500 IU/kg body weight.
Excessive vitamin A consumption can lead to nausea, irritability, reduced appetite, vomiting, blurry vision, headaches, hair loss, muscle pain, abdominal pain, weakness, drowsiness, and altered mental status. Chronic toxicity can cause dry skin, dry mucous membranes, fever, insomnia, fatigue, weight loss, bone fractures, anemia, and diarrhea.
Note that carotene forms like beta-carotene from dietary sources are not toxic although the skin can become yellow.
Vitamin Bp – Choline
Choline is an essential nutrient, which must be consumed in the diet because humans can only synthesize small amounts. Most choline is found in phospholipids, especially in phosphatidylcholine (lecithin).
Choline is important for the structural integrity of cell membranes, for cell-signaling molecules, as a precursor for the neurotransmitter acetylcholine, and for lipid (fat) transport and metabolism. Choline seems essential for the brain development of fetuses and infants as well as for brain functions in adults. Choline may protect the liver from damage and may lower cholesterol and homocysteine levels associated with cardiovascular disease. It may also protect against cancer.
Sources
Rich sources of choline are beef liver, whole eggs, beef meat, cauliflower, navy beans, fish, nuts, peas, spinach, milk, and wheat germ. Lecithin is also a good source of choline.
Below is a list of foods having the highest content of choline in g per 100 grams of the food.
Since you may also be interested in foods with a high vitamin content AND few calories, the list also includes the number of calories.
The list is made using ECstep’s Personal Nutrition Data Program. Commercial brand products are not included in this list.
Daily intake
The recommended intake is 550 mg per day for males and 425 mg per day for females. Pregnant females should take at least 450 mg and lactating females should take 550 mg per day.
If you are deficient in choline you should take considerably more. The maximum safe intake of choline intake has been set at 3.5 g/day.
Deficiency
Choline deficiency does not happen easily. If it occurs it may lead to fatty liver, raised cholesterol levels, high blood pressure and kidney problems, inability to digest fats, stunted growth, and impaired memory and brain function.
Excess
Taking too much choline could cause fishy body odor, nausea, and depression. It could trigger existing epilepsy. Hypotension, sweating, salivation, and diarrhea have also been reported.
Vitamin B1 – thiamin
Vitamin B1 or thiamin (or thiamine) is water-soluble as other B vitamins.
Thiamin is essential for many important functions in the body: the nervous system and the muscles, the flow of electrolytes in and out of nerve and muscle cells (through ion channels), multiple enzyme processes (via the coenzyme thiamine pyrophosphate (TPP)), carbohydrate metabolism, and production of hydrochloric acid in the stomach (which is necessary for proper digestion).
Thus vitamin B1 helps to convert sugar, carbohydrates, proteins & starch into energy to cover the body’s needs. Little thiamine is stored in the body. Depletion can occur within 14 days.
Sources
Dietary sources of thiamin include beef, brewer’s yeast, legumes (beans, lentils), milk, nuts, oats, oranges, pork, rice, seeds, wheat, whole-grain cereals, and yeast.
In industrialized countries, foods made with white rice or white flour are often fortified with thiamin, because most of the naturally occurring thiamin is lost during the refinement process.
Thiamin is obtained from both plant and animal sources. Sunflower seeds, whole grain cereals, peanuts, wheat bran, whole wheat flour, wheat germ, sea-fish, liver, egg yolk, and kidney beans are good sources of thiamin.
Below is a list of foods having the highest content of thiamin in g per 100 grams of the food.
Since you may also be interested in foods with a high vitamin content AND few calories, the list also includes the number of calories.
The list is made using ECstep’s Personal Nutrition Data Program. Commercial brand products are not included in this list.
Daily intake
The recommended daily intake is 1.4 mg. However, a daily intake of about 50 mg may increase mental acuity. Such high doses are safely tolerated.
Deficiency
Severe chronic thiamine deficiency (beriberi) can result in potentially serious complications involving the nervous system, brain, muscles, heart, and gastrointestinal system.
Wernicke’s encephalopathy and Korsakoff’s psychosis (the Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome), which can occur in alcoholic individuals, are often associated with deficiency of thiamin and other B vitamins.
The symptoms of beriberi include swelling, tingling or burning sensation in hands and feet, difficulty in breathing, uncontrolled eye movements, and memory loss.
Thiamin deficiency heightens the chance of cataracts in the eyes and it may lead to congestive heart failure. It can also cause Alzheimer’s disease, extreme fatigue, irritability, constipation, edema, and enlarged liver.
Excess
There are no reports of adverse effects from the consumption of excess thiamin. An intake of 500 mg daily for longer periods of time has not been associated with any toxicity. Excess thiamin is quickly eliminated in the urine.
Vitamin B2 – riboflavin
Vitamin B2 is an easily absorbed micronutrient with a key role in maintaining health in humans and animals.
It is the central component of the cofactors FAD (flavin adenine dinucleotide) and FMN (flavin mononucleotide). As such, vitamin B2 is required for a wide variety of cellular processes.
It plays a key role in energy metabolism, and in the metabolism of fats, ketone bodies, carbohydrates, and proteins.
Sources
Yeast extract is considered to be exceptionally rich in vitamin B2, and liver and kidney are also rich sources.
Wheat bran, eggs, meat, milk, and cheese are important sources as well. Cereals contain relatively low concentrations of vitamin B2.
Below is a list of foods having the highest content of riboflavin in g per 100 grams of the food.
Since you may also be interested in foods with a high vitamin content AND few calories, the list also includes the number of calories.
The list is made using ECstep’s Personal Nutrition Data Program. Commercial brand products are not included in this list.
Daily intake
The recommended intake of riboflavin for adult men and women is 1.3 mg/day and 1.1 mg/day, respectively.
Recommendations for daily riboflavin intake increase with pregnancy and lactation to 1.4 mg and 1.6 mg, respectively.
Deficiency
In humans, signs and symptoms of riboflavin deficiency (ariboflavinosis) include dry and scaling skin, cracked and red lips, inflammation of the lining of the mouth and tongue, mouth ulcers, and cracks at the corners of the mouth (angular cheilitis), a sore throat and anemia. The eyes may also become bloodshot, itchy, watery, and sensitive to bright light.
Excess
Riboflavin is not toxic when taken orally, as its low solubility keeps it from being absorbed in dangerous amounts in the digestive tract. Excessive intake is excreted in the urine, imparting a bright yellow color when in large quantities.
So in humans, there is no evidence for riboflavin toxicity produced by excessive intake. Intakes of 400 milligrams per day have been tolerated without short-term side effects.
Vitamin B3 – niacin
The essential vitamin B3 or niacin is a part of the coenzymes NAD (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide) and NADP (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate), which are important in the metabolism of carbohydrate, fat, and protein.
Furthermore, vitamin B3 can expand the blood vessels, reduce cholesterol concentration in the blood, protect the nervous system, prevent the development of pellagra and promote the production of hydrochloric acid in the stomach.
Niacin is involved in DNA repair, the production of steroid hormones in the adrenal gland, and building the fat-containing structures in the cell membranes.
Niacin also helps synthesize glycogen that can be stored in the body’s muscles and liver as an energy source.
Sources
Niacin is found in a variety of foods, including liver, chicken, beef, fish, whole grain, peanuts, and legumes, and is also synthesized from the amino acid tryptophan, which is found in meat, dairy products, and eggs.
Below is a list of foods having the highest content of niacin in g per 100 grams of the food.
Since you may also be interested in foods with a high vitamin content AND few calories, the list also includes the number of calories.
The list is made using ECstep’s Personal Nutrition Data Program. Commercial brand products are not included in this list.
Daily intake
The recommended daily intake is 14 mg for women, 16 mg for men, and 18 mg for pregnant or breastfeeding women.
The upper limit for adult men and women is 35 mg/day. Higher intakes provoke flushing of the skin as an adverse effect.
Deficiency
Mild niacin deficiency has been shown to slow metabolism, causing decreased tolerance to cold.
Severe deficiency of niacin in the diet causes the disease pellagra, which is characterized by diarrhea, dermatitis, and dementia, as well as “necklace” lesions on the lower neck, hyperpigmentation, thickening of the skin, inflammation of the mouth and tongue, digestive disturbances, amnesia, and delirium.
Psychiatric symptoms of niacin deficiency include irritability, poor concentration, anxiety, fatigue, restlessness, apathy, and depression.
Excess
In the amounts provided by food, no symptoms of toxicity have been reported.
Large doses of niacin (1.5 – 6 g per day) may lead to skin flushing and itching, dry skin, and skin rashes like eczema. Gastrointestinal complaints, such as dyspepsia (indigestion), nausea, and liver toxicity have been reported. High blood sugar, cardiac arrhythmias, and aggravation of gout may also be seen.
Vitamin B5 – pantothenic acid
Vitamin B5 or pantothenic acid is an essential nutrient, which helps to synthesize coenzyme-A (CoA), as well as to synthesize and metabolize proteins, carbohydrates, and fats.
Coenzyme A may act as an acyl group carrier to form acetyl-CoA and other related compounds. CoA is also important in the biosynthesis of many important compounds such as fatty acids, cholesterol, and acetylcholine. Furthermore, CoA is required in the formation of an acyl carrier protein (ACP), which is also required for fatty acid synthesis addition to CoA.
Pantothenic acid is involved in more than 100 different metabolic pathways which also include the synthesis of neurotransmitters, steroid hormones, porphyrins, and hemoglobin.
Sources
Pantothenic acid is widely available in foods. The major food source of pantothenic acid is organ meats.
Other good sources are whole grains, brewer’s yeast, egg yolks, fish, chicken, cheese, peanuts, dried beans, and many vegetables including sweet potatoes, green peas, cauliflower, and avocados.
Below is a list of foods having the highest content of pantothenic acid in g per 100 grams of the food.
Since you may also be interested in foods with a high vitamin content AND few calories, the list also includes the number of calories.
The list is made using ECstep’s Personal Nutrition Data Program. Commercial brand products are not included in this list.
Daily intake
The recommended daily intake for adults is 5 mg, for pregnant and breastfeeding women it is 6 mg and 7 mg, respectively.
Deficiency
Pantothenic acid deficiency is exceptionally rare.
In the few cases where deficiency has been seen (victims of starvation), nearly all symptoms can be reversed by taking the vitamin.
The symptoms of deficiency include irritability, fatigue, apathy, numbness, paresthesia, muscle cramps, and low blood glucose concentration. Additional symptoms could include restlessness, malaise, sleep disturbances, nausea, vomiting, and abdominal cramps.
Excess
Toxic symptoms of pantothenic acid are unlikely to occur. Large doses of the vitamin, when ingested, have no or little side effects.
In humans, the only reported symptom after intakes of 10 to 20 g of calcium pantothenic acid was diarrhea.
Vitamin B6 – pyridoxine
Vitamin B6 exists as pyridoxine, pyridoxal, and pyridoxamine. The metabolically active coenzyme forms are pyridoxal phosphate (PLP) and pyridoxamine phosphate (PMP).
These coenzymes are involved in more than 100 enzyme reactions. Both PLP and PMP are involved in amino acid metabolism, and PLP is also involved in the metabolism of carbohydrates, and lipids.
Vitamin B6 plays a role in cognitive development through the biosynthesis of neurotransmitters and in maintaining normal levels of homocysteine, an amino acid in the blood.
Vitamin B6 is involved in gluconeogenesis (formation of glucose from protein) and glycogenolysis (break down of glycogen), immune function, and hemoglobin formation.
Sources
Vitamin B6 is widely distributed in foods. The richest sources are fish, beef liver and other organ meats, potatoes and other starchy vegetables, and fruit (other than citrus).
In the United States, adults obtain most of their dietary vitamin B6 from fortified cereals, beef, poultry, starchy vegetables, and some non-citrus fruits.
Below is a list of foods having the highest content of pyridoxine in g per 100 grams of the food.
Since you may also be interested in foods with a high vitamin content AND few calories, the list also includes the number of calories.
The list is made using ECstep’s Personal Nutrition Data Program. Commercial brand products are not included in this list.
Daily intake
The recommended daily intake is as follows:
Males 14-50 years: 1.3 milligrams
Males 51 years and older: 1.7 milligrams
Females 9-13 years: 1.0 milligram
Females 14-50: 1.2 milligrams
Females 51 years and older: 1.5 milligrams
Pregnant females of any age: 1.9 milligrams
Lactating females of any age: 2.0 milligrams
The Tolerable Upper Intake Level (UL) is 100 milligrams for adults.
Deficiency
Isolated vitamin B6 deficiency is uncommon.
Inadequate vitamin B6 status is usually associated with deficiency of vitamin B12 and folic acid.
Vitamin B6 deficiency is associated with anemia, dermatitis with cheilosis (scaling on the lips and cracks at the corners of the mouth) and glossitis (swollen tongue), depression and confusion, and weakened immune function.
Individuals with borderline vitamin B6 concentrations or mild deficiency might have no deficiency signs or symptoms for months or even years.
In infants, vitamin B6 deficiency causes irritability, abnormally acute hearing, and convulsive seizures
Excess
Vitamin B6 is usually safe up to 50 mg per day in adults.
However, vitamin B6 can cause neurological disorders, such as loss of sensation in the legs and imbalance, when taken in high doses (200 mg or more per day) over a long period of time.
Vitamin B6 toxicity can damage sensory nerves, leading to numbness in the hands and feet as well as difficulty in walking.
Symptoms of a pyridoxine overdose may include poor coordination, staggering, numbness, decreased sensation to touch, temperature, and vibration, and tiredness for up to six months
Vitamin B7 – biotin
Vitamin B7 or biotin is an essential water-soluble nutrient.
Biotin is a coenzyme for carboxylase enzymes, involved in the synthesis of fatty acids, isoleucine, and valine, and in gluconeogenesis (formation of glucose from protein).
Biotin is necessary for cell growth, the production of fatty acids, and the metabolism of fats and amino acids.
It plays a role in the citric acid cycle, which is the process by which biochemical energy is generated.
Biotin is often recommended for strengthening hair and nails. Biotin is also important for normal embryonic growth, making it a critical nutrient during pregnancy.
Sources
Biotin is consumed from a wide range of food sources in the diet, but few are particularly rich sources.
Biotin can be found in brewer’s yeast, cooked eggs, especially egg yolk (not raw egg whites, which interfere with absorption), sardines, almonds, peanuts, pecans, walnuts, soybeans, beans, blackeye peas, whole grains, cauliflower, bananas, and mushrooms.
Daily intake
Adults over the age of 18 and pregnant women need 30 micrograms of vitamin B7 a day to adequately meet the body’s needs. Lactating women need 35 micrograms a day.
Deficiency
Biotin deficiency is relatively rare and mild and can be addressed with supplementation.
Symptoms of biotin deficiency include hair loss (alopecia), conjunctivitis, dermatitis in the form of a scaly, red rash around the eyes, nose, mouth, and in the genital area, depression, lethargy, hallucination, and numbness and tingling of the extremities.
Pregnant women tend to have a high risk of biotin deficiency, which may cause infants’ congenital malformations, such as cleft palate.
Infants and embryos are more sensitive to biotin deficiency.
Therefore, even a mild level of the mother’s biotin deficiency that does not reach the appearance of physiological deficiency signs may cause serious consequences in the infants.
Excess
There are no reported cases of adverse effects from receiving high doses of the vitamin.
Doses of up to 5,000 micrograms/day for two years have not led to adverse effects.
Vitamin B9 – folic acid
Vitamin B9, folic acid, or folate is an essential water-soluble nutrient. Folate occurs naturally in foods, while folic acid is the synthetic form of the vitamin.
The human body needs folate to synthesize DNA, repair DNA, and methylate DNA as well as to act as a cofactor in many biological processes.
It is especially important in aiding rapid cell division and growth, such as in infancy and pregnancy. Children and adults require folic acid to produce healthy red blood cells and prevent anemia.
Vitamin B9 is important for normal nerve and brain functioning, and it may help reduce blood levels of the amino acid homocysteine, which may be associated with an increased risk of heart disease and stroke.
Folic acid may also help slow memory decline associated with aging.
Pregnant women have an increased need for folic acid, which supports the growth of the placenta and fetus, and helps to prevent several types of birth defects, especially those of the brain and spine (neural tube defects).
Pregnant women who don’t consume enough folate are also more likely to have babies who have low birth weight or are premature.
Sources
Folate and folic acid derive their names from the Latin word folium (meaning foods rich in vitamin B9 – folic acid or folate”leaf”). Leafy vegetables are a principal source, although in Western diets fortified cereals and bread may be a larger dietary source.
Foods high in folate include leafy vegetables such as spinach, asparagus, turnip greens, and lettuce, legumes such as dried or fresh beans, peas and lentils, egg yolks, Baker’s yeast, fortified grain products (pasta, cereal, bread), and sunflower seeds. Liver and liver products contain high amounts of folate.
Below is a list of foods having the highest content of folic acid or folate in g per 100 grams of the food.
Since you may also be interested in foods with a high vitamin content AND few calories, the list also includes the number of calories.
The list is made using ECstep’s Personal Nutrition Data Program. Commercial brand products are not included in this list.
Daily intake
The recommended daily intake is as follows: Adults: 400 micrograms, Pregnant women: 600 micrograms, and Breastfeeding women: 500 micrograms.
Deficiency
A lack of dietary folic acid leads to folate deficiency, which is uncommon in normal Western diets.
Deficiency can result in many health problems, the most notable one being neural tube defects in developing embryos.
Common symptoms of folate deficiency include diarrhea, macrocytic anemia with weakness or shortness of breath, nerve damage with weakness and limb numbness (peripheral neuropathy), pregnancy complications, mental confusion, forgetfulness or other cognitive declines, mental depression, sore or swollen tongue, peptic or mouth ulcers, headaches, heart palpitations, irritability, and behavioral disorders.
Low levels of folate can also lead to homocysteine accumulation, and impaired DNA synthesis, and repair, and this could lead to cancer development.
Excess
Folic acid has few side effects, even when taken in high amounts.
Although the folic acid itself is not a problem, supplemental folic acid can mask symptoms of pernicious anemia, a potentially fatal disease that is caused by a deficiency of vitamin B12.
Very high doses (above 15,000 micrograms) can cause stomach problems, sleep disturbances, skin reactions, and seizures.
Vitamin B12 – cobalamin
Vitamin B12 or cobalamin is an essential water-soluble cobalt-containing nutrient with a key role in the normal functioning of the brain and nervous system and in the formation of blood.
It is involved in the metabolism of every cell of the human body, especially affecting DNA synthesis and regulation, but also fatty acid synthesis and energy production.
Vitamin B12 was discovered from its relationship to the disease pernicious anemia, which is an autoimmune disease in which the parietal cells of the stomach responsible for secreting the intrinsic factor are destroyed leading to atrophic gastritis.
Intrinsic factor is necessary for the normal absorption of B12. Insufficient absorption of vitamin B12 causes a vitamin B12 deficiency, which may be severe.
Sources
Vitamin B12 is naturally found in animal products, including fish, meat (especially liver), poultry, eggs, milk, and milk products.
Vitamin B12 is generally not present in plant foods. However, fortified breakfast cereals are a readily available source of vitamin B12 with high bioavailability for vegetarians.
Below is a list of foods having the highest content of vitamin B12 in g per 100 grams of the food.
Since you may also be interested in foods with a high vitamin content AND few calories, the list also includes the number of calories.
The list is made using ECstep’s Personal Nutrition Data Program. Commercial brand products are not included in this list.
Daily intake
The recommended daily intake for adults is 2.4 micrograms for adults, 2.6 micrograms for pregnant women, and 2.8 micrograms for lactating women.
Deficiency
A slight deficiency may be associated with unspecific symptoms such as fatigue, depression, and poor memory.
Severe vitamin B12 deficiency may be caused by a lack of the intrinsic factor compromising the absorption of the vitamin leading to pernicious anemia.
A severe chronic vitamin B12 deficiency can cause marked and irreversible damage, especially to the brain and nervous system. Vitamin B12 deficiency can also cause symptoms of mania and psychosis.
Excess
Vitamin B12 has extremely low toxicity and even taking it in enormous doses appears not to be harmful to healthy individuals.
Vitamin C – ascorbic acid
Vitamin C or ascorbic acid or ascorbate is an essential water-soluble nutrient for humans and certain other animal species. In living organisms ascorbate acts as an antioxidant by protecting the body against oxidative stress.
It is a cofactor for at least eight enzymatic reactions in collagen synthesis that, when dysfunctional, cause scurvy. These reactions are important in wound-healing and in preventing bleeding from capillaries.
Sources
Some excellent sources of vitamin C are oranges, green and red peppers, watermelon, papaya, grapefruit, cantaloupe, strawberries, kiwi, mango, broccoli, tomatoes, Brussels sprouts, cauliflower, cabbage, and citrus juices or juices fortified with vitamin C.
Turnip greens, spinach, potatoes, winter squash, raspberries, blueberries, cranberries, and pineapple are also rich sources of vitamin C.
Below is a list of foods having the highest content of vitamin C in milligrams per 100 grams of the food.
Since you may also be interested in foods with a high vitamin content AND few calories, the list also includes the number of calories.
The list is made using ECstep’s Personal Nutrition Data Program. Commercial brand products are not included in this list.
Daily intake
The recommended daily intake is 90 milligrams. No more than 2 grams should be taken daily.
Deficiency
Vitamin C deficiency is rare in the Western world. Too little vitamin C can lead to scurvy caused mainly by defects in collagen synthesis.
The signs and symptoms include anemia, bleeding gums, decreased ability to fight infection, decreased wound-healing rate, dry and splitting hair, easy bruising, gingivitis (inflammation of the gums), nosebleeds, possible weight gain because of slowed metabolism, rough, dry, scaly skin, swollen and painful joints, and weakened tooth enamel.
The human body has limited stores of vitamin C. Therefore, scurvy can develop within months if the diet is free of vitamin C. Chronic long-term low blood levels of vitamin C (“chronic scurvy”) can cause atherosclerosis.
Excess
Vitamin C is water-soluble, with dietary excesses not being absorbed, and excesses in the blood rapidly being excreted in the urine. It exhibits remarkably low toxicity.
Doses of about 6 grams per day may lead to nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, flushing of the face, skin rashes, headache, fatigue, and disturbed sleep.
Vitamin D – calciferol
Vitamin D is a fat-soluble vitamin. In humans, vitamin D can be ingested as cholecalciferol (vitamin D3) or ergocalciferol (vitamin D2). The vitamin can also be synthesized in the body from cholesterol when sun exposure is adequate (hence its nickname, the “sunshine vitamin”).
The liver and kidneys modify the vitamin to the biologically active form (calcitriol), which circulates in the blood as a hormone regulating the concentration of calcium and phosphate in the bloodstream and promoting the healthy growth and remodeling of bone.
Vitamin D assists in the proliferation and differentiation of cells and affects neuromuscular function and inflammation.
Sources
Relatively few foods contain vitamin D. Some fish, such as salmon, tuna, and mackerel, as well as fish liver oils are the best sources. Some vitamin D is also present in beef liver, cheese, and egg yolks.
In the Western world, most of the vitamin D in the food comes from fortified foods – where vitamin D is artificially added. Vitamin D is often added to milk, many kinds of breakfast cereals, and to some brands of orange juice, yogurt, margarine, and soy beverages.
Below is a list of foods having the highest content of vitamin D in g per 100 grams of the food.
Since you may also be interested in foods with a high vitamin content AND few calories, the list also includes the number of calories.
The list is made using ECstep’s Personal Nutrition Data Program. Commercial brand products are not included in this list.
Daily intake
The recommended daily intake is 600 IU (15 micrograms) for children and adults 9–70 years, 800 IU (20 micrograms) for adults > 70 years, and 600 IU (20 micrograms) for pregnant and lactating women.
The tolerable upper limit is 4000 IU (100 micrograms) per day for ages 9–71+ years (including pregnant or lactating women).
Deficiency
A diet deficient in vitamin D causes rickets in children and osteomalacia in adults.
The problem in both diseases is a softening of the bones leading to impeded growth, deformity, bone fragility, and muscular weakness and pain. In the developed world, these diseases are rare.
Excess
In healthy adults, a sustained intake of more than 1250 micrograms/day (50,000 IU) can produce toxicity after several months.
Vitamin D overdose causes hypercalcemia associated with anorexia, nausea, vomiting, polyuria, polydipsia, weakness, insomnia, nervousness, pruritus, and, ultimately, renal failure.
Vitamin E – tocopherol
Vitamin E refers to a group of eight fat-soluble compounds that include both tocopherols and tocotrienols. Both of these exist in four forms (alpha, beta, gamma, delta). Alpha-tocopherol is the most biologically active form.
The important function of vitamin E is the antioxidant function protecting lipids and preventing the oxidation of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs).
Vitamin E is incorporated into cell membranes protecting them from oxidative damage. Other functions include enzymatic activities and gene expression.
Vitamin E also plays a role in neurological functions and inhibition of platelet aggregation.
Sources
The best sources of alpha-tocopherol are nuts, seeds, and vegetable oils (wheat germ oil, sunflower oil, and safflower oil). Significant amounts are also available in green leafy vegetables and fortified cereals.
Most vitamin E in American diets is in the form of gamma-tocopherol from soybean, canola, corn, and other vegetable oils and food products such as commercial breakfast cereal and tomato sauce.
Although originally extracted from wheat germ oil, most natural vitamin E supplements are now derived from vegetable oils, usually soybean oil.
Below is a list of foods having the highest content of vitamin E in g per 100 grams of the food.
Since you may also be interested in foods with a high vitamin content AND few calories, the list also includes the number of calories.
The list is made using ECstep’s Personal Nutrition Data Program. Commercial brand products are not included in this list.
Daily intake
The recommended daily intake for adults is 15 mg (22.5 IU). The upper tolerable intake level (UL) for vitamin E is 1000 mg (1500 IU) per day.
Deficiency
Signs of vitamin E deficiency include neuromuscular problems such as spinocerebellar ataxia, myopathies, dysarthria, absence of deep tendon reflexes, loss of vibratory sensation, and proprioception, and positive Babinski sign (abnormal plantar reflex).
Deficiency can also cause anemia due to oxidative damage to red blood cells, retinopathy, impairment of the immune response, and male infertility.
Excess
When obtained from food sources alone, vitamin E has no documented toxicity.
Please note that for persons with vitamin K deficiency, a high intake of vitamin E can prolong bleeding time and interfere with the clotting of the blood.
Vitamin E supplements, when taken in very high doses of 2000 mg (3000 IU) or more, have toxic effects including intestinal cramps and diarrhea, fatigue, double vision, and muscle weakness.
Vitamin K – naphthoquinones
Vitamin K is a group of structurally similar, fat-soluble vitamins that are needed to modify certain proteins required for blood coagulation and in metabolic pathways in bone and other tissue.
This group of vitamins includes two natural vitamins: vitamin K1 and vitamin K2.
Vitamin K1, phylloquinone or phytomenadione (also called phytonadione), is synthesized by plants and is found in the highest amounts in green leafy vegetables because it is directly involved in photosynthesis.
Vitamin K2 (menaquinone) has several subtypes, one of which is involved in bone metabolism. Bacteria in the large intestine can produce a range of vitamin K2 forms. The amount absorbed may be small.
Sources
Vitamin K1 is found chiefly in leafy green vegetables such as dandelion greens, parsley, spinach, Swiss chard, cabbage, kale, cauliflower, broccoli, brussels sprouts, avocado, kiwifruit, and grapes.
Vitamin K2 is synthesized by animal tissues and is found in meat, eggs, and dairy products.
Freezing foods may destroy vitamin K, but heating does not affect it.
Below is a list of foods having the highest content of vitamin K in g per 100 grams of the food.
Since you may also be interested in foods with a high vitamin content AND few calories, the list also includes the number of calories.
The list is made using ECstep’s Personal Nutrition Data Program. Commercial brand products are not included in this list.
Daily intake
The recommended daily intake is 120 micrograms for adult males and 90 micrograms for adult (including pregnant or lactating) females. No tolerable upper intake level (UL) has been set.
Deficiency
Vitamin K deficiency is uncommon in healthy adults. Newborn infants are at an increased risk of deficiency. Vitamin K deficiency may develop in bulimics, those on stringent diets, and those taking anticoagulants.
Vitamin K1 deficiency can result in coagulopathy, which is a bleeding disorder. Symptoms of K1 deficiency include anemia, bruising, bleeding of the gums or nose, and in women also heavy menstrual bleeding.
Osteoporosis (weak, porous bones) and coronary heart disease are strongly associated with lower levels of K2 (menaquinone).
Excess
Although an allergic reaction from supplementation is possible, no known toxicity is associated with high doses of the phylloquinone (vitamin K1) or menaquinone (vitamin K2) forms of vitamin K.
However, a synthetic form of vitamin K, vitamin K3 (menadione), is demonstrably toxic. This form has been banned from over-the-counter supplements because large doses have been shown to cause allergic reactions, hemolytic anemia, and cytotoxicity in liver cells.
